History of Islam — Persians, Arab Supremacy & the Shu’ubiyya
The Mawali System (Rashidun & Umayyad Caliphates)
The first two caliphates treated Islam as an Arab tribal religion where Arabs (people of the revelation) sat above non-Arab converts. The Mawali system:
- Non-Arab converts had to be subjects or clients (mawali) of an Arab tribe
- Non-Arab subjects continued paying jazia tax even after converting
- Non-Arabs mostly couldn’t lead prayers or call adhan
- Non-Arabs mostly couldn’t occupy high positions in clergy or polity
- Non-Arabs received lower shares of booty, land, and status despite equal piety
The Abbasid Revolution
Rose to power by coalition with non-Arab converts (especially Khorasani Persians) — promising integration, abolishing jazia for all converted Muslims, incorporating non-Arabs into bureaucracy and military. Political power weakened in the 9th century as regional Sultans arose.
The Shu’ubiyya Movement
Mainly championed by Iranians who rejected ethnically privileged gatekeeping of Islam. Argued Islam was a universal faith superseding Arab tribalism. Persian strategy:
- Mastered Arabic grammar — first analyzed and standardized by Persian Muslim Sībawayh
- Mastered Islamic jurisprudence — all major Sunni/Shia hadith collections compiled by mostly Persian-origin Muslims (al-Bukhari, Muslim Hajjaj)
- Mastered Islamic theology — most Abbasid-era theologians were Iranians and Central Asians
By mastering the new religion’s tools better than the Arabs themselves, Persians dominated it culturally. They argued: revelation was in Arabic to an Arab prophet, but the political and cultural vessel need not be Arabic — it would be Persian.
Conversion Was Gradual
Iran: roughly 40% Muslim by mid-9th century, 80% by end of 11th century. Conversion accelerated under native Persian Muslim dynasties. Famous converts/near-converts: Ferdowsi, Omar Khayyam.
Result: Islam transformed from an Arab supremacist project to a theoretically egalitarian religion clothed in Persianate language and culture.
Ottoman Takeover & Wahhabism
After the 10th century, Turks emerged as dominant. In 1517, Sultan Selim I captured the holy land and assumed the caliphate title. The Wahhabi project was in part a re-Arabization of Islam — returning to Rashidun/Umayyad roots — which is why some in the Arabian peninsula still treat converts of other races as second-class.
Source: open.substack.com/pub/ramaseshan
See also: 4B-mental-models | 13-spirituality